Clinical Description
To date, including those with a clinical and a molecular genetic diagnosis and with an estimated incidence of 1:1000-1:2500, several thousand individuals have been identified with Noonan syndrome (NS) [Roberts et al 2013]. The following description of the phenotypic features associated with this condition is based on these reports.
Table 2.
Noonan Syndrome: Frequency of Select Features
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Feature | % of Persons w/Feature | Comment |
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Eye anomalies | 95% | |
Short stature | 50%-70% | For age, sex, & family background |
Hypotonia | Majority | Can contribute to feeding problems, speech articulation issues, & delayed attainment of gross motor milestones |
Joint hyperextensibility | Majority | |
Pectus anomaly | Majority | Characteristic pectus deformity of the chest: pectus carinatum superiorly & pectus excavatum inferiorly |
Cryptorchidism in males | 60%-80% | |
Congenital heart disease | 50%-80% | 25%-71% of affected persons have pulmonary valve stenosis, often w/pulmonary valve dysplasia. |
Hearing loss | 40% | May be sensorineural, conductive, or mixed |
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy | 10%-29% | Half of those w/hypertrophic cardiomyopathy are diagnosed by age 6 mos. |
Learning disability | 25% | ~10%-15% of those w/NS require special education. |
Intellectual disability 1 | 6%-23% |
Renal anomalies | 11% | Most commonly dilatation of the renal pelvis |
Abnormal bleeding or bruising | Bleeding: 6%-10%; bruising: majority | |
Prenatal features. Advanced paternal age has been observed in cohorts with simplex NS. Common perinatal findings [Stuurman et al 2019]:
Polyhydramnios
Lymphatic dysplasia including increased distended jugular lymphatic sacs, nuchal translucency, cystic hygroma, pleural effusion, and ascites
Relative macrocephaly
Cardiac and renal anomalies
In chromosomally normal fetuses with increased nuchal translucency, it is estimated that 3%-15% have PTPN11-associated NS [Stuurman et al 2019].
Growth. Birth weight is usually normal, although edema may cause a transient increase. Infants with NS frequently have feeding difficulties. This period of failure to thrive is self limited, although poor weight gain may persist for up to 18 months.
Length at birth is usually normal. Postnatal growth failure is often obvious from the first year of life [Seo & Yoo 2018]. Mean height then follows the third centile from ages two to four years until puberty, when below-average growth velocity and an attenuated adolescent growth spurt tend to occur. As bone maturity is usually delayed, prolonged growth into the 20s is possible.
Final adult height approaches the lower limit of normal: 161-167 cm in males and 150-155 cm in females. Growth curves have been developed from these cross-sectional retrospective data. One study suggests that 30% of affected individuals have height within the normal adult range, while more than 50% of females and nearly 40% of males have an adult height below the third centile [Seo & Yoo 2018].
In many affected persons, decreased IGF-I- and IGF-binding protein 3, together with low responses to provocation, suggest impaired growth hormone release or disturbance of the growth hormone / insulin-like growth factor I axis. Mild growth hormone resistance related to a post-receptor signaling defect (which may be partially compensated for by elevated growth hormone secretion) is reported in individuals with NS and a PTPN11 pathogenic variant [Seo & Yoo 2018].
Growth hormone (GH) therapy has been used in individuals with NS (see Management):
Cardiovascular. Significant bias in the frequency of congenital heart disease may exist because many clinicians have in the past required the presence of cardiac anomalies for diagnosis of NS. The frequency of congenital heart disease is estimated at between 50% and 80%.
Pulmonary valve
stenosis, often with dysplasia, is the most common anomaly in NS, found in 25%-71% of affected individuals; it may be isolated or associated with other cardiovascular defects.
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is found in 10%-29% of individuals with NS. It usually presents early in life: the median age at diagnosis is five months and more than 50% of individuals with NS and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy are diagnosed by age six months [
Hickey et al 2011,
Wilkinson et al 2012].
Other structural defects frequently observed include atrial septal defects (4%-57%), ventricular septal defects (1%-14%), atrioventricular canal defects (1%-13%), mitral valve abnormalities (2%-17%), aortic coarctation (2%-9%), patent ductus arteriosus (1%-6%), and tetralogy of Fallot (1%-4%) [
Linglart & Gelb 2020].
An electrocardiographic abnormality is documented in approximately 90% of individuals with NS and may be present without concomitant structural defects. Extreme right axis deviation with superior counterclockwise frontal QRS loop, superior or left axis deviation, left anterior hemiblock, or an RSR' pattern in lead V1 (of no clinical consequence) are common findings [
Sharland et al 1992].
Psychomotor development. Early developmental milestones may be delayed, likely in part as a result of the combination of joint hyperextensibility and hypotonia. The average age for sitting unsupported is around ten months and for walking is 21 months [Pierpont 2016]. About 50% of school-age children meet diagnostic criteria for a developmental coordination disorder [Lee et al 2005a] and impaired manual dexterity is significantly correlated with verbal and nonverbal intellectual functioning [Pierpont et al 2015].
Most school-age children perform well in a normal educational setting, but 25% have learning disabilities [Lee et al 2005a] and 10%-15% require special education [van der Burgt et al 1999]. Intellectual abilities are in general mildly lowered in children with NS. IQ scores below 70 are seen in 6%-23% across studies [Pierpont et al 2015]. Studies conflict with regard to strength in verbal vs nonverbal performance and no clear pattern has emerged [Pierpont et al 2015]. There may be a specific cognitive disability, either in verbal or praxic reasoning, requiring a special academic strategy and school placement.
Articulation deficiency is common (72%) but usually responds well to speech therapy. Language delay may be related to hearing loss, perceptual motor disabilities, or articulation deficiencies. The average age at first words is around 15 months and simple two-word phrases emerge on average from age 31 to 32 months [Pierpont et al 2015].
A study of the language phenotype of children and adults with NS showed that language impairments in general are more common in NS than in the general population and a majority of children (70%) receive speech and language therapy. When language issues are present, there is a higher risk for reading and spelling difficulties [Pierpont et al 2015]. Language is significantly correlated with nonverbal cognition, hearing ability, articulation, motor dexterity, and phonologic memory. No specific aspect of language was selectively affected in those with NS.
There is emerging evidence that impairment in attention and executive functioning is one of the most common neuropsychological challenges for children with NS [Pierpont et al 2015]. Studies that rely on screening measures rather than comprehensive diagnostic assessments suggest that children with NS are at heightened risk for autism spectrum disorders; however, further research is needed [Pierpont 2016].
Psychological health. Few details of psychological health in Noonan syndrome are reported. No particular syndrome of behavioral disability or psychopathology is observed, and self-esteem is comparable to age-related peers [Lee et al 2005a]. A study of 37 individuals with a molecular genetic diagnosis of Noonan syndrome demonstrated a higher incidence of emotional dysregulation, irritability, and anxiety symptomatology compared to the general population [Alfieri et al 2021]. Noonan [2005a] documented problems in a cohort of 51 adults: depression was found in 23%, and occasional substance abuse and bipolar disease were reported. Similar findings were not reported in a large UK cohort followed over many years [Shaw et al 2007]. In one study of adults with NS, 49% reported that they had been diagnosed and treated for depression and/or anxiety [Smpokou et al 2012].
Genitourinary. Renal abnormalities, generally mild, are present in 11% of individuals with NS. Dilatation of the renal pelvis is most common. Duplex collecting systems, minor rotational anomalies, distal ureteric stenosis, renal hypoplasia, unilateral renal agenesis, unilateral renal ectopia, and bilateral cysts with scarring are reported less commonly.
Male pubertal development and subsequent fertility may be normal, delayed, or inadequate. Deficient spermatogenesis may be related to cryptorchidism, which is noted in 60%-80% of males; however, a study of male gonadal function identified Sertoli cell dysfunction both in males with cryptorchidism and those with normal testicular descent, suggesting an intrinsic defect leading to hypergonadotropic hypogonadism [Moniez et al 2018].
Puberty may be delayed in females, with a mean age at menarche of 14.6±1.17 years. Normal fertility is the rule.
Facial features. Differences in facial appearance, albeit subtle at certain ages, are a key clinical feature:
In the neonate, tall forehead, widely spaced eyes with downslanted palpebral fissures, low-set, posteriorly rotated ears with a thickened helix, a deeply grooved philtrum with high, wide peaks to the vermilion border of the upper lip, and a short neck with excess nuchal skin and low posterior hairline are found.
In infancy, eyes are prominent, with horizontal palpebral fissures, widely spaced eyes, and full or ptotic upper eyelids. The nose has a depressed nasal bridge, wide base, and bulbous tip.
In childhood, facial appearance is often lacking in affect or expression, as in an individual with a myopathy.
By adolescence, facial shape is an inverted triangle, wide at the forehead and tapering to a pointed chin. Eyes are less prominent and features are sharper. The neck lengthens, accentuating skin webbing or prominence of the trapezius muscle.
In the older adult, nasolabial folds are prominent, and the skin appears transparent and wrinkled.
Skeletal features
Thoracic scoliosis is reported in 13%-30% of individuals diagnosed at a mean age of nine years.
Estimates of the frequency of the characteristic appearance of the chest (superior pectus carinatum and inferior pectus excavatum with a broad chest and increased inter-nipple distance) range from 28% to 95% [
Rodríguez et al 2020].
Vertebral defects have also been reported.
Reported upper limb anomalies include cubitus valgus, radioulnar synostosis, brachydactyly, and fifth finger clinodactyly.
Common maxillofacial features include micrognathia, high arched palate, and dental crowding [
Rodríguez et al 2020].
Small studies have suggested lower bone mineral density in children and osteopenia in adults [
Fowlkes et al 2021].
Multiple giant cell lesions of the jaw, joints (pigmented villonodular synovitis), and/or soft tissue have been reported in association with
PTPN11-,
SOS1-, and
RAF1-associated cases of Noonan syndrome [
Miri et al 2018,
Rodríguez et al 2020].
Bleeding diathesis. Most persons with NS have a history of abnormal bleeding or bruising. Early studies reported that about one third of all individuals with NS have one or more coagulation defects, with subsequent studies suggesting a lower rate of coagulopathy [Derbent et al 2010]. The coagulopathy may manifest as severe surgical hemorrhage, clinically mild bruising, or laboratory abnormalities with no clinical consequences. A variety of small studies have shown that while 50%-89% of those with NS have either a history of bleeding and/or abnormal hemostatic lab results, only 10%-42% have both (reviewed in Briggs & Dickerman [2012]). A study of 70 individuals with NS who had not had preoperative evaluation for coagulopathy demonstrated a 6.2% risk of perioperative bleeding complications [Briggs et al 2020].
Lymphatic. Varied lymphatic abnormalities are described in individuals with NS. They may be localized or widespread, prenatal, and/or postnatal. Dorsal limb (top of the foot and back of the hand) lymphedema is most common. Less common findings include: intestinal, pulmonary, or testicular lymphangiectasia; chylous effusions of the pleural space and/or peritoneum; and localized lymphedema of the scrotum or vulva.
Ocular. Ocular abnormalities including ptosis, strabismus, refractive errors, amblyopia, and nystagmus occur in up to 95% of affected individuals. Anterior segment and fundus changes are less common. There are case reports of keratoconus and Axenfeld anomaly [Lee & Sakhalkar 2014, Guerin et al 2015, van Trier et al 2018].
Ears/hearing. Hearing impairment has an estimated incidence of 40%. Some individuals have sensorineural hearing loss, others have a secondary conductive hearing loss due to chronic otitis media or middle ear effusion, and some have mixed conductive and sensorineural hearing loss [van Nierop et al 2017].
Dermatologic. Skin differences, particularly follicular keratosis over extensor surfaces and face, are relatively common and may occasionally be as severe as those found in cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome (see Differential Diagnosis).
Café au lait spots and lentigines are described in NS more frequently than in the general population (see Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines discussion in Genetically Related Disorders).
Other