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Pseudo-TORCH syndrome 3(PTORCH3)

MedGen UID:
1708513
Concept ID:
C5394391
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: PSEUDO-TORCH SYNDROME 3; PTORCH3
 
Gene (location): STAT2 (12q13.3)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0030044
OMIM®: 618886

Definition

Pseudo-TORCH syndrome-3 (PTORCH3) is an autosomal recessive disorder of immune dysregulation and neuroinflammation apparent from early infancy. Affected individuals have developmental delay with acute episodes of fever and multisystemic organ involvement, including coagulopathy, elevated liver enzymes, and proteinuria, often associated with thrombotic microangiopathy. Brain imaging shows progressive intracranial calcifications, white matter abnormalities, and sometimes cerebral or cerebellar atrophy. Laboratory studies show abnormal elevation of interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene (ISG) transcripts consistent with a type I interferonopathy. The phenotype resembles the sequelae of intrauterine infection, but there is usually no evidence of an infectious agent. The disorder results from defects in negative regulation of the interferon immunologic pathway. Death in early childhood is common (summary by Duncan et al., 2019 and Gruber et al., 2020). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of PTORCH, see PTORCH1 (251290). [from OMIM]

Clinical features

From HPO
Proteinuria
MedGen UID:
10976
Concept ID:
C0033687
Finding
Increased levels of protein in the urine.
Acute kidney injury
MedGen UID:
388570
Concept ID:
C2609414
Injury or Poisoning
Sudden loss of renal function, as manifested by decreased urine production, and a rise in serum creatinine or blood urea nitrogen concentration (azotemia).
Cardiomegaly
MedGen UID:
5459
Concept ID:
C0018800
Finding
Increased size of the heart, clinically defined as an increased transverse diameter of the cardiac silhouette that is greater than or equal to 50% of the transverse diameter of the chest (increased cardiothoracic ratio) on a posterior-anterior projection of a chest radiograph or a computed tomography.
Hypertensive disorder
MedGen UID:
6969
Concept ID:
C0020538
Disease or Syndrome
The presence of chronic increased pressure in the systemic arterial system.
Cerebral hemorrhage
MedGen UID:
423648
Concept ID:
C2937358
Pathologic Function
Hemorrhage into the parenchyma of the brain.
Seizure
MedGen UID:
20693
Concept ID:
C0036572
Sign or Symptom
A seizure is an intermittent abnormality of nervous system physiology characterized by a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.
Cerebellar hypoplasia
MedGen UID:
120578
Concept ID:
C0266470
Congenital Abnormality
Cerebellar hypoplasia is a descriptive term implying a cerebellum with a reduced volume, but a normal shape and is stable over time.
Global developmental delay
MedGen UID:
107838
Concept ID:
C0557874
Finding
A delay in the achievement of motor or mental milestones in the domains of development of a child, including motor skills, speech and language, cognitive skills, and social and emotional skills. This term should only be used to describe children younger than five years of age.
Abnormal cerebral white matter morphology
MedGen UID:
181756
Concept ID:
C0948163
Pathologic Function
An abnormality of the cerebral white matter.
Anemia
MedGen UID:
1526
Concept ID:
C0002871
Disease or Syndrome
A reduction in erythrocytes volume or hemoglobin concentration.
Congenital thrombocytopenia
MedGen UID:
124422
Concept ID:
C0272278
Disease or Syndrome
Thrombocytopenia with congenital onset.
Elevated circulating D-dimer concentration
MedGen UID:
677042
Concept ID:
C0742969
Finding
An increased concentration of D-dimers, a marker of fibrin degradation, in the blood circulation.
Cerebral calcification
MedGen UID:
124360
Concept ID:
C0270685
Finding
The presence of calcium deposition within the cerebrum.
Apnea
MedGen UID:
2009
Concept ID:
C0003578
Sign or Symptom
Lack of breathing with no movement of the respiratory muscles and no exchange of air in the lungs. This term refers to a disposition to have recurrent episodes of apnea rather than to a single event.
Respiratory insufficiency
MedGen UID:
11197
Concept ID:
C0035229
Pathologic Function
Impairment of gas exchange within the lungs secondary to a disease process, neoplasm, or trauma, possibly resulting in hypoxia, hypercarbia, or both, but not requiring intubation or mechanical ventilation. Patients are normally managed with pharmaceutical therapy, supplemental oxygen, or both.
Leukocytosis
MedGen UID:
9736
Concept ID:
C0023518
Disease or Syndrome
An abnormal increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood.
Lymphadenitis
MedGen UID:
7410
Concept ID:
C0024205
Disease or Syndrome
Inflammation of a lymph node.
Increased circulating ferritin concentration
MedGen UID:
69130
Concept ID:
C0241013
Finding
Increased concentration of ferritin in the blood circulation.
Recurrent fever
MedGen UID:
811468
Concept ID:
C3714772
Sign or Symptom
Periodic (episodic or recurrent) bouts of fever.
Premature birth
MedGen UID:
57721
Concept ID:
C0151526
Pathologic Function
The birth of a baby of less than 37 weeks of gestational age.

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Jafarpour S, Suddock J, Hawes D, Santoro JD
J Clin Immunol 2024 Feb 21;44(3):68. doi: 10.1007/s10875-024-01672-2. PMID: 38381212
Lang E, Koller S, Atac D, Pfäffli OA, Hanson JVM, Feil S, Bähr L, Bahr A, Kottke R, Joset P, Fasler K, Barthelmes D, Steindl K, Konrad D, Wille DA, Berger W, Gerth-Kahlert C
Acta Ophthalmol 2021 Jun;99(4):e594-e607. Epub 2020 Sep 30 doi: 10.1111/aos.14615. PMID: 32996714
Lee S, Clinard K, Young SP, Rehder CW, Fan Z, Calikoglu AS, Bali DS, Bailey DB Jr, Gehtland LM, Millington DS, Patel HS, Beckloff SE, Zimmerman SJ, Powell CM, Taylor JL
JAMA Netw Open 2020 Jan 3;3(1):e1920356. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.20356. PMID: 32003821Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Mendonça LO, Frémond ML
Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2024 Sep;38(3):101975. Epub 2024 Aug 8 doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2024.101975. PMID: 39122631
Di Lazzaro G, Graziola F, Sancesario A, Insalaco A, Moneta GM, Castelli E, Bertini E, Travaglini L, Stregapede F, Capuano A, Vasco G, Schirinzi T
Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2020 Oct;79:100-104. Epub 2020 Aug 30 doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2020.08.039. PMID: 32911246
Hill CR, Theos A
Dermatol Clin 2019 Apr;37(2):229-239. doi: 10.1016/j.det.2018.11.004. PMID: 30850045
Fragoulis GE, McInnes IB, Siebert S
Rheumatology (Oxford) 2019 Feb 1;58(Suppl 1):i43-i54. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/key276. PMID: 30806709Free PMC Article
Aringer M, Günther C, Lee-Kirsch MA
Clin Immunol 2013 Jun;147(3):216-22. Epub 2012 Dec 12 doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2012.11.012. PMID: 23290784

Diagnosis

de Jesus AA, Hou Y, Brooks S, Malle L, Biancotto A, Huang Y, Calvo KR, Marrero B, Moir S, Oler AJ, Deng Z, Montealegre Sanchez GA, Ahmed A, Allenspach E, Arabshahi B, Behrens E, Benseler S, Bezrodnik L, Bout-Tabaku S, Brescia AC, Brown D, Burnham JM, Caldirola MS, Carrasco R, Chan AY, Cimaz R, Dancey P, Dare J, DeGuzman M, Dimitriades V, Ferguson I, Ferguson P, Finn L, Gattorno M, Grom AA, Hanson EP, Hashkes PJ, Hedrich CM, Herzog R, Horneff G, Jerath R, Kessler E, Kim H, Kingsbury DJ, Laxer RM, Lee PY, Lee-Kirsch MA, Lewandowski L, Li S, Lilleby V, Mammadova V, Moorthy LN, Nasrullayeva G, O'Neil KM, Onel K, Ozen S, Pan N, Pillet P, Piotto DG, Punaro MG, Reiff A, Reinhardt A, Rider LG, Rivas-Chacon R, Ronis T, Rösen-Wolff A, Roth J, Ruth NM, Rygg M, Schmeling H, Schulert G, Scott C, Seminario G, Shulman A, Sivaraman V, Son MB, Stepanovskiy Y, Stringer E, Taber S, Terreri MT, Tifft C, Torgerson T, Tosi L, Van Royen-Kerkhof A, Wampler Muskardin T, Canna SW, Goldbach-Mansky R
J Clin Invest 2020 Apr 1;130(4):1669-1682. doi: 10.1172/JCI129301. PMID: 31874111Free PMC Article
Hill CR, Theos A
Dermatol Clin 2019 Apr;37(2):229-239. doi: 10.1016/j.det.2018.11.004. PMID: 30850045
Crow YJ, Chase DS, Lowenstein Schmidt J, Szynkiewicz M, Forte GM, Gornall HL, Oojageer A, Anderson B, Pizzino A, Helman G, Abdel-Hamid MS, Abdel-Salam GM, Ackroyd S, Aeby A, Agosta G, Albin C, Allon-Shalev S, Arellano M, Ariaudo G, Aswani V, Babul-Hirji R, Baildam EM, Bahi-Buisson N, Bailey KM, Barnerias C, Barth M, Battini R, Beresford MW, Bernard G, Bianchi M, Billette de Villemeur T, Blair EM, Bloom M, Burlina AB, Carpanelli ML, Carvalho DR, Castro-Gago M, Cavallini A, Cereda C, Chandler KE, Chitayat DA, Collins AE, Sierra Corcoles C, Cordeiro NJ, Crichiutti G, Dabydeen L, Dale RC, D'Arrigo S, De Goede CG, De Laet C, De Waele LM, Denzler I, Desguerre I, Devriendt K, Di Rocco M, Fahey MC, Fazzi E, Ferrie CD, Figueiredo A, Gener B, Goizet C, Gowrinathan NR, Gowrishankar K, Hanrahan D, Isidor B, Kara B, Khan N, King MD, Kirk EP, Kumar R, Lagae L, Landrieu P, Lauffer H, Laugel V, La Piana R, Lim MJ, Lin JP, Linnankivi T, Mackay MT, Marom DR, Marques Lourenço C, McKee SA, Moroni I, Morton JE, Moutard ML, Murray K, Nabbout R, Nampoothiri S, Nunez-Enamorado N, Oades PJ, Olivieri I, Ostergaard JR, Pérez-Dueñas B, Prendiville JS, Ramesh V, Rasmussen M, Régal L, Ricci F, Rio M, Rodriguez D, Roubertie A, Salvatici E, Segers KA, Sinha GP, Soler D, Spiegel R, Stödberg TI, Straussberg R, Swoboda KJ, Suri M, Tacke U, Tan TY, te Water Naude J, Wee Teik K, Thomas MM, Till M, Tonduti D, Valente EM, Van Coster RN, van der Knaap MS, Vassallo G, Vijzelaar R, Vogt J, Wallace GB, Wassmer E, Webb HJ, Whitehouse WP, Whitney RN, Zaki MS, Zuberi SM, Livingston JH, Rozenberg F, Lebon P, Vanderver A, Orcesi S, Rice GI
Am J Med Genet A 2015 Feb;167A(2):296-312. Epub 2015 Jan 16 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36887. PMID: 25604658Free PMC Article
Rice G, Patrick T, Parmar R, Taylor CF, Aeby A, Aicardi J, Artuch R, Montalto SA, Bacino CA, Barroso B, Baxter P, Benko WS, Bergmann C, Bertini E, Biancheri R, Blair EM, Blau N, Bonthron DT, Briggs T, Brueton LA, Brunner HG, Burke CJ, Carr IM, Carvalho DR, Chandler KE, Christen HJ, Corry PC, Cowan FM, Cox H, D'Arrigo S, Dean J, De Laet C, De Praeter C, Dery C, Ferrie CD, Flintoff K, Frints SG, Garcia-Cazorla A, Gener B, Goizet C, Goutieres F, Green AJ, Guet A, Hamel BC, Hayward BE, Heiberg A, Hennekam RC, Husson M, Jackson AP, Jayatunga R, Jiang YH, Kant SG, Kao A, King MD, Kingston HM, Klepper J, van der Knaap MS, Kornberg AJ, Kotzot D, Kratzer W, Lacombe D, Lagae L, Landrieu PG, Lanzi G, Leitch A, Lim MJ, Livingston JH, Lourenco CM, Lyall EG, Lynch SA, Lyons MJ, Marom D, McClure JP, McWilliam R, Melancon SB, Mewasingh LD, Moutard ML, Nischal KK, Ostergaard JR, Prendiville J, Rasmussen M, Rogers RC, Roland D, Rosser EM, Rostasy K, Roubertie A, Sanchis A, Schiffmann R, Scholl-Burgi S, Seal S, Shalev SA, Corcoles CS, Sinha GP, Soler D, Spiegel R, Stephenson JB, Tacke U, Tan TY, Till M, Tolmie JL, Tomlin P, Vagnarelli F, Valente EM, Van Coster RN, Van der Aa N, Vanderver A, Vles JS, Voit T, Wassmer E, Weschke B, Whiteford ML, Willemsen MA, Zankl A, Zuberi SM, Orcesi S, Fazzi E, Lebon P, Crow YJ
Am J Hum Genet 2007 Oct;81(4):713-25. Epub 2007 Sep 4 doi: 10.1086/521373. PMID: 17846997Free PMC Article
Goutières F
Brain Dev 2005 Apr;27(3):201-6. doi: 10.1016/j.braindev.2003.12.011. PMID: 15737701

Therapy

Kanazawa N, Ishii T, Takita Y, Nishikawa A, Nishikomori R
Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2023 Apr 22;21(1):38. doi: 10.1186/s12969-023-00817-8. PMID: 37087470Free PMC Article
Liu Y, Xiao N, Du H, Kou M, Lin L, Huang M, Zhang S, Xu S, Li D, Chen Q
Biochem Pharmacol 2020 Aug;178:114090. Epub 2020 Jun 19 doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114090. PMID: 32565148
de Jesus AA, Hou Y, Brooks S, Malle L, Biancotto A, Huang Y, Calvo KR, Marrero B, Moir S, Oler AJ, Deng Z, Montealegre Sanchez GA, Ahmed A, Allenspach E, Arabshahi B, Behrens E, Benseler S, Bezrodnik L, Bout-Tabaku S, Brescia AC, Brown D, Burnham JM, Caldirola MS, Carrasco R, Chan AY, Cimaz R, Dancey P, Dare J, DeGuzman M, Dimitriades V, Ferguson I, Ferguson P, Finn L, Gattorno M, Grom AA, Hanson EP, Hashkes PJ, Hedrich CM, Herzog R, Horneff G, Jerath R, Kessler E, Kim H, Kingsbury DJ, Laxer RM, Lee PY, Lee-Kirsch MA, Lewandowski L, Li S, Lilleby V, Mammadova V, Moorthy LN, Nasrullayeva G, O'Neil KM, Onel K, Ozen S, Pan N, Pillet P, Piotto DG, Punaro MG, Reiff A, Reinhardt A, Rider LG, Rivas-Chacon R, Ronis T, Rösen-Wolff A, Roth J, Ruth NM, Rygg M, Schmeling H, Schulert G, Scott C, Seminario G, Shulman A, Sivaraman V, Son MB, Stepanovskiy Y, Stringer E, Taber S, Terreri MT, Tifft C, Torgerson T, Tosi L, Van Royen-Kerkhof A, Wampler Muskardin T, Canna SW, Goldbach-Mansky R
J Clin Invest 2020 Apr 1;130(4):1669-1682. doi: 10.1172/JCI129301. PMID: 31874111Free PMC Article
Hill CR, Theos A
Dermatol Clin 2019 Apr;37(2):229-239. doi: 10.1016/j.det.2018.11.004. PMID: 30850045
Fragoulis GE, McInnes IB, Siebert S
Rheumatology (Oxford) 2019 Feb 1;58(Suppl 1):i43-i54. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/key276. PMID: 30806709Free PMC Article

Prognosis

Di Lazzaro G, Graziola F, Sancesario A, Insalaco A, Moneta GM, Castelli E, Bertini E, Travaglini L, Stregapede F, Capuano A, Vasco G, Schirinzi T
Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2020 Oct;79:100-104. Epub 2020 Aug 30 doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2020.08.039. PMID: 32911246
Genova E, Cavion F, Lucafò M, Pelin M, Lanzi G, Masneri S, Ferraro RM, Fazzi EM, Orcesi S, Decorti G, Tommasini A, Giliani S, Stocco G
Clin Pharmacol Ther 2020 Aug;108(2):358-367. Epub 2020 May 9 doi: 10.1002/cpt.1837. PMID: 32243572
Lee S, Clinard K, Young SP, Rehder CW, Fan Z, Calikoglu AS, Bali DS, Bailey DB Jr, Gehtland LM, Millington DS, Patel HS, Beckloff SE, Zimmerman SJ, Powell CM, Taylor JL
JAMA Netw Open 2020 Jan 3;3(1):e1920356. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.20356. PMID: 32003821Free PMC Article
Ramantani G, Maillard LG, Bast T, Husain RA, Niggemann P, Kohlhase J, Hertzberg C, Ungerath K, Innes MA, Walkenhorst H, Bevot A, von Stülpnagel C, Thomas K, Niemann F, Ergun MA, Tacke U, Häusler M, Ikonomidou C, Korinthenberg R, Lee-Kirsch MA
Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2014 Jan;18(1):30-7. Epub 2013 Sep 5 doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2013.07.005. PMID: 24011626
Uggetti C, La Piana R, Orcesi S, Egitto MG, Crow YJ, Fazzi E
AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2009 Nov;30(10):1971-6. Epub 2009 Jul 23 doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A1694. PMID: 19628626Free PMC Article

Clinical prediction guides

Zhang C, Yu Z, Gao S, Ma M, Gou L, Wang C, Wang L, Li J, Zhong L, Zhou Y, Wang W, Song H
Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2023 Oct 17;21(1):124. doi: 10.1186/s12969-023-00881-0. PMID: 37848905Free PMC Article
de Jesus AA, Hou Y, Brooks S, Malle L, Biancotto A, Huang Y, Calvo KR, Marrero B, Moir S, Oler AJ, Deng Z, Montealegre Sanchez GA, Ahmed A, Allenspach E, Arabshahi B, Behrens E, Benseler S, Bezrodnik L, Bout-Tabaku S, Brescia AC, Brown D, Burnham JM, Caldirola MS, Carrasco R, Chan AY, Cimaz R, Dancey P, Dare J, DeGuzman M, Dimitriades V, Ferguson I, Ferguson P, Finn L, Gattorno M, Grom AA, Hanson EP, Hashkes PJ, Hedrich CM, Herzog R, Horneff G, Jerath R, Kessler E, Kim H, Kingsbury DJ, Laxer RM, Lee PY, Lee-Kirsch MA, Lewandowski L, Li S, Lilleby V, Mammadova V, Moorthy LN, Nasrullayeva G, O'Neil KM, Onel K, Ozen S, Pan N, Pillet P, Piotto DG, Punaro MG, Reiff A, Reinhardt A, Rider LG, Rivas-Chacon R, Ronis T, Rösen-Wolff A, Roth J, Ruth NM, Rygg M, Schmeling H, Schulert G, Scott C, Seminario G, Shulman A, Sivaraman V, Son MB, Stepanovskiy Y, Stringer E, Taber S, Terreri MT, Tifft C, Torgerson T, Tosi L, Van Royen-Kerkhof A, Wampler Muskardin T, Canna SW, Goldbach-Mansky R
J Clin Invest 2020 Apr 1;130(4):1669-1682. doi: 10.1172/JCI129301. PMID: 31874111Free PMC Article
Crow YJ, Chase DS, Lowenstein Schmidt J, Szynkiewicz M, Forte GM, Gornall HL, Oojageer A, Anderson B, Pizzino A, Helman G, Abdel-Hamid MS, Abdel-Salam GM, Ackroyd S, Aeby A, Agosta G, Albin C, Allon-Shalev S, Arellano M, Ariaudo G, Aswani V, Babul-Hirji R, Baildam EM, Bahi-Buisson N, Bailey KM, Barnerias C, Barth M, Battini R, Beresford MW, Bernard G, Bianchi M, Billette de Villemeur T, Blair EM, Bloom M, Burlina AB, Carpanelli ML, Carvalho DR, Castro-Gago M, Cavallini A, Cereda C, Chandler KE, Chitayat DA, Collins AE, Sierra Corcoles C, Cordeiro NJ, Crichiutti G, Dabydeen L, Dale RC, D'Arrigo S, De Goede CG, De Laet C, De Waele LM, Denzler I, Desguerre I, Devriendt K, Di Rocco M, Fahey MC, Fazzi E, Ferrie CD, Figueiredo A, Gener B, Goizet C, Gowrinathan NR, Gowrishankar K, Hanrahan D, Isidor B, Kara B, Khan N, King MD, Kirk EP, Kumar R, Lagae L, Landrieu P, Lauffer H, Laugel V, La Piana R, Lim MJ, Lin JP, Linnankivi T, Mackay MT, Marom DR, Marques Lourenço C, McKee SA, Moroni I, Morton JE, Moutard ML, Murray K, Nabbout R, Nampoothiri S, Nunez-Enamorado N, Oades PJ, Olivieri I, Ostergaard JR, Pérez-Dueñas B, Prendiville JS, Ramesh V, Rasmussen M, Régal L, Ricci F, Rio M, Rodriguez D, Roubertie A, Salvatici E, Segers KA, Sinha GP, Soler D, Spiegel R, Stödberg TI, Straussberg R, Swoboda KJ, Suri M, Tacke U, Tan TY, te Water Naude J, Wee Teik K, Thomas MM, Till M, Tonduti D, Valente EM, Van Coster RN, van der Knaap MS, Vassallo G, Vijzelaar R, Vogt J, Wallace GB, Wassmer E, Webb HJ, Whitehouse WP, Whitney RN, Zaki MS, Zuberi SM, Livingston JH, Rozenberg F, Lebon P, Vanderver A, Orcesi S, Rice GI
Am J Med Genet A 2015 Feb;167A(2):296-312. Epub 2015 Jan 16 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36887. PMID: 25604658Free PMC Article
Rice G, Patrick T, Parmar R, Taylor CF, Aeby A, Aicardi J, Artuch R, Montalto SA, Bacino CA, Barroso B, Baxter P, Benko WS, Bergmann C, Bertini E, Biancheri R, Blair EM, Blau N, Bonthron DT, Briggs T, Brueton LA, Brunner HG, Burke CJ, Carr IM, Carvalho DR, Chandler KE, Christen HJ, Corry PC, Cowan FM, Cox H, D'Arrigo S, Dean J, De Laet C, De Praeter C, Dery C, Ferrie CD, Flintoff K, Frints SG, Garcia-Cazorla A, Gener B, Goizet C, Goutieres F, Green AJ, Guet A, Hamel BC, Hayward BE, Heiberg A, Hennekam RC, Husson M, Jackson AP, Jayatunga R, Jiang YH, Kant SG, Kao A, King MD, Kingston HM, Klepper J, van der Knaap MS, Kornberg AJ, Kotzot D, Kratzer W, Lacombe D, Lagae L, Landrieu PG, Lanzi G, Leitch A, Lim MJ, Livingston JH, Lourenco CM, Lyall EG, Lynch SA, Lyons MJ, Marom D, McClure JP, McWilliam R, Melancon SB, Mewasingh LD, Moutard ML, Nischal KK, Ostergaard JR, Prendiville J, Rasmussen M, Rogers RC, Roland D, Rosser EM, Rostasy K, Roubertie A, Sanchis A, Schiffmann R, Scholl-Burgi S, Seal S, Shalev SA, Corcoles CS, Sinha GP, Soler D, Spiegel R, Stephenson JB, Tacke U, Tan TY, Till M, Tolmie JL, Tomlin P, Vagnarelli F, Valente EM, Van Coster RN, Van der Aa N, Vanderver A, Vles JS, Voit T, Wassmer E, Weschke B, Whiteford ML, Willemsen MA, Zankl A, Zuberi SM, Orcesi S, Fazzi E, Lebon P, Crow YJ
Am J Hum Genet 2007 Oct;81(4):713-25. Epub 2007 Sep 4 doi: 10.1086/521373. PMID: 17846997Free PMC Article
Ramaekers VT, Blau N
Dev Med Child Neurol 2004 Dec;46(12):843-51. doi: 10.1017/s0012162204001471. PMID: 15581159

Recent systematic reviews

Tusseau M, Lovšin E, Samaille C, Pescarmona R, Mathieu AL, Maggio MC, Selmanović V, Debeljak M, Dachy A, Novljan G, Janin A, Januel L, Gibier JB, Chopin E, Rouvet I, Goncalves D, Fabien N, Rice GI, Lesca G, Labalme A, Romagnani P, Walzer T, Viel S, Perret M, Crow YJ, Avčin T, Cimaz R, Belot A
J Clin Immunol 2022 Aug;42(6):1310-1320. Epub 2022 Jun 7 doi: 10.1007/s10875-022-01287-5. PMID: 35670985

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