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Kartagener syndrome(CILD1)

MedGen UID:
1646059
•Concept ID:
C4551906
•
Disease or Syndrome
Synonyms: CILD1; CILIARY DYSKINESIA, PRIMARY, 1; CILIARY DYSKINESIA, PRIMARY, 1, WITH OR WITHOUT SITUS INVERSUS; Dextrocardia bronchiectasis and sinusitis; IMMOTILE CILIA SYNDROME; POLYNESIAN BRONCHIECTASIS; Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia 1: DNAI1-Related Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia; Siewert syndrome
 
Gene (location): DNAI1 (9p13.3)
 
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0009484
OMIM®: 244400
Orphanet: ORPHA98861

Definition

Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a genetically heterogeneous autosomal recessive disorder resulting from loss of function of different parts of the primary ciliary apparatus, most often dynein arms. Kartagener (pronounced KART-agayner) syndrome is characterized by the combination of primary ciliary dyskinesia and situs inversus (270100), and occurs in approximately half of patients with ciliary dyskinesia. Since normal nodal ciliary movement in the embryo is required for normal visceral asymmetry, absence of normal ciliary movement results in a lack of definitive patterning; thus, random chance alone appears to determine whether the viscera take up the normal or reversed left-right position during embryogenesis. This explains why approximately 50% of patients, even within the same family, have situs inversus (Afzelius, 1976; El Zein et al., 2003). Genetic Heterogeneity of Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia Other forms of primary ciliary dyskinesia include CILD2 (606763), caused by mutation in the DNAAF3 gene (614566) on 19q13; CILD3 (608644), caused by mutation in the DNAH5 gene (603335) on 5p15; CILD4 (608646), mapped to 15q13; CILD5 (608647), caused by mutation in the HYDIN gene (610812) on 16q22; CILD6 (610852), caused by mutation in the TXNDC3 gene (607421) on 7p14; CILD7 (611884), caused by mutation in the DNAH11 gene (603339) on 7p15; CILD8 (612274), mapped to 15q24-q25; CILD9 (612444), caused by mutation in the DNAI2 gene (605483) on 17q25; CILD10 (612518), caused by mutation in the DNAAF2 gene (612517) on 14q21; CILD11 (612649), caused by mutation in the RSPH4A gene (612647) on 6q22; CILD12 (612650), caused by mutation in the RSPH9 gene (612648) on 6p21; CILD13 (613193), caused by mutation in the DNAAF1 gene (613190) on 16q24; CILD14 (613807), caused by mutation in the CCDC39 gene (613798) gene on 3q26; CILD15 (613808), caused by mutation in the CCDC40 gene (613799) on 17q25; CILD16 (614017), caused by mutation in the DNAL1 gene (610062) on 14q24; CILD17 (614679), caused by mutation in the CCDC103 gene (614677) on 17q21; CILD18 (614874), caused by mutation in the DNAAF5 gene (614864) on 7p22; CILD19 (614935), caused by mutation in the LRRC6 gene (614930) on 8q24; CILD20 (615067), caused by mutation in the CCDC114 gene (615038) on 19q13; CILD21 (615294), caused by mutation in the DRC1 gene (615288) on 2p23; CILD22 (615444), caused by mutation in the ZMYND10 gene (607070) on 3p21; CILD23 (615451), caused by mutation in the ARMC4 gene (615408) on 10p; CILD24 (615481), caused by mutation in the RSPH1 gene (609314) on 21q22; CILD25 (615482), caused by mutation in the DYX1C1 gene (608706) on 15q21; CILD26 (615500), caused by mutation in the C21ORF59 gene (615494) on 21q22; CILD27 (615504), caused by mutation in the CCDC65 gene (611088) on 12q13; CILD28 (615505), caused by mutation in the SPAG1 gene (603395) on 8q22; CILD29 (615872), caused by mutation in the CCNO gene (607752) on 5q11; CILD30 (616037), caused by mutation in the CCDC151 gene (615956) on 19p13; CILD32 (616481), caused by mutation in the RSPH3 gene (615876) on 6q25; CILD33 (616726), caused by mutation in the GAS8 gene (605178) on 16q24; CILD34 (617091), caused by mutation in the DNAJB13 gene (610263) on 11q13; CILD35 (617092), caused by mutation in the TTC25 gene (617095) on 17q21; CILD36 (300991), caused by mutation in the PIH1D3 gene (300933) on Xq22; CILD37 (617577), caused by mutation in the DNAH1 gene (603332) on 3p21; CILD38 (618063), caused by mutation in the CFAP300 gene (618058) on 11q22; CILD39 (618254), caused by mutation in the LRRC56 gene (618227) on 11p15; CILD40 (618300), caused by mutation in the DNAH9 gene (603330) on 17p12; CILD41 (618449), caused by mutation in the GAS2L2 gene (611398) on 17q12; CILD42 (618695), caused by mutation in the MCIDAS gene (614086) on 5q11; CILD43 (618699), caused by mutation in the FOXJ1 gene (602291) on 17q25; CILD44 (618781), caused by mutation in the NEK10 gene (618726) on 3p24; CILD45 (618801), caused by mutation in the TTC12 gene (610732) on 11q23; CILD46 (619436), caused by mutation in the STK36 gene (607652) on 2q35; CILD47 (619466), caused by mutation in the TP73 gene (601990) on 1p36; CILD48 (620032), caused by mutation in the NME5 gene (603575) on chromosome 5q31; CILD49 (620197), caused by mutation in the CFAP74 gene (620187) on chromosome 1p36; CILD50 (620356), caused by mutation in the DNAH7 gene (610061) on chromosome 2q32; CILD51 (620438), caused by mutation in the BRWD1 gene (617824) on chromosome 21q22; CILD52 (620570), caused by mutation in the DAW1 gene (620279) on chromosome 2q36; and CILD53 (620642), caused by mutation in the CLXN gene (619564) on chromosome 8q11. Ciliary abnormalities have also been reported in association with both X-linked and autosomal forms of retinitis pigmentosa. Mutations in the RPGR gene (312610), which underlie X-linked retinitis pigmentosa (RP3; 300029), are in some instances (e.g., 312610.0016) associated with recurrent respiratory infections indistinguishable from immotile cilia syndrome; see 300455. Afzelius (1979) gave an extensive review of cilia and their disorders. There are also several possibly distinct CILDs described based on the electron microscopic appearance of abnormal cilia, including CILD with transposition of the microtubules (215520), CILD with excessively long cilia (242680), and CILD with defective radial spokes (242670). [from OMIM]

Additional description

From MedlinePlus Genetics
Rarely, individuals with primary ciliary dyskinesia have an accumulation of fluid in the brain (hydrocephalus), likely due to abnormal cilia in the brain.

Another feature of primary ciliary dyskinesia is recurrent ear infections (otitis media), especially in young children. Otitis media can lead to permanent hearing loss if untreated. The ear infections are likely related to abnormal cilia within the inner ear.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia can also lead to infertility. Vigorous movements of the flagella are necessary to propel the sperm cells forward to the female egg cell. Because their sperm do not move properly, males with primary ciliary dyskinesia are usually unable to father children. Infertility occurs in some affected females and is likely due to abnormal cilia in the fallopian tubes.

Approximately 12 percent of people with primary ciliary dyskinesia have a condition known as heterotaxy syndrome or situs ambiguus, which is characterized by abnormalities of the heart, liver, intestines, or spleen. These organs may be structurally abnormal or improperly positioned. In addition, affected individuals may lack a spleen (asplenia) or have multiple spleens (polysplenia). Heterotaxy syndrome results from problems establishing the left and right sides of the body during embryonic development. The severity of heterotaxy varies widely among affected individuals.

In the respiratory tract, cilia move back and forth in a coordinated way to move mucus towards the throat. This movement of mucus helps to eliminate fluid, bacteria, and particles from the lungs. Most babies with primary ciliary dyskinesia experience breathing problems at birth, which suggests that cilia play an important role in clearing fetal fluid from the lungs. Beginning in early childhood, affected individuals develop frequent respiratory tract infections. Without properly functioning cilia in the airway, bacteria remain in the respiratory tract and cause infection. People with primary ciliary dyskinesia also have year-round nasal congestion and a chronic cough. Chronic respiratory tract infections can result in a condition called bronchiectasis, which damages the passages, called bronchi, leading from the windpipe to the lungs and can cause life-threatening breathing problems.

Some individuals with primary ciliary dyskinesia have abnormally placed organs within their chest and abdomen. These abnormalities arise early in embryonic development when the differences between the left and right sides of the body are established. About 50 percent of people with primary ciliary dyskinesia have a mirror-image reversal of their internal organs (situs inversus totalis). For example, in these individuals the heart is on the right side of the body instead of on the left. Situs inversus totalis does not cause any apparent health problems. When someone with primary ciliary dyskinesia has situs inversus totalis, they are often said to have Kartagener syndrome.

Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a disorder characterized by chronic respiratory tract infections, abnormally positioned internal organs, and the inability to have children (infertility). The signs and symptoms of this condition are caused by abnormal cilia and flagella. Cilia are microscopic, finger-like projections that stick out from the surface of cells. They are found in the linings of the airway, the reproductive system, and other organs and tissues. Flagella are tail-like structures, similar to cilia, that propel sperm cells forward.  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/primary-ciliary-dyskinesia

Clinical features

From HPO
Male infertility
MedGen UID:
5796
•Concept ID:
C0021364
•
Disease or Syndrome
The inability of the male to effect fertilization of an ovum after a specified period of unprotected intercourse. Male sterility is permanent infertility.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Situs inversus
MedGen UID:
1642262
•Concept ID:
C4551493
•
Congenital Abnormality
A left-right reversal (or mirror reflection) of the anatomical location of the major thoracic and abdominal organs.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Conductive hearing impairment
MedGen UID:
9163
•Concept ID:
C0018777
•
Disease or Syndrome
An abnormality of vibrational conductance of sound to the inner ear leading to impairment of sensory perception of sound.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Anosmia
MedGen UID:
1950
•Concept ID:
C0003126
•
Finding
An inability to perceive odors. This is a general term describing inability to smell arising in any part of the process of smelling from absorption of odorants into the nasal mucous overlying the olfactory epithelium, diffusion to the cilia, binding to olfactory receptor sites, generation of action potentials in olfactory neurons, and perception of a smell.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Communicating hydrocephalus
MedGen UID:
1058
•Concept ID:
C0009451
•
Disease or Syndrome
A form of hydrocephalus in which there is no visible obstruction to the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid between the ventricles and subarachnoid space.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Headache
MedGen UID:
9149
•Concept ID:
C0018681
•
Sign or Symptom
Cephalgia, or pain sensed in various parts of the head, not confined to the area of distribution of any nerve.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Absent frontal sinuses
MedGen UID:
343405
•Concept ID:
C1855669
•
Finding
Aplasia of frontal sinus.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Atelectasis
MedGen UID:
13946
•Concept ID:
C0004144
•
Pathologic Function
Collapse of part of a lung associated with absence of inflation (air) of that part.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Bronchiectasis
MedGen UID:
14234
•Concept ID:
C0006267
•
Disease or Syndrome
Persistent abnormal dilatation of the bronchi owing to localized and irreversible destruction and widening of the large airways.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Primary ciliary dyskinesia
MedGen UID:
3467
•Concept ID:
C0008780
•
Disease or Syndrome
Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a disorder characterized by chronic respiratory tract infections, abnormally positioned internal organs, and the inability to have children (infertility). The signs and symptoms of this condition are caused by abnormal cilia and flagella. Cilia are microscopic, finger-like projections that stick out from the surface of cells. They are found in the linings of the airway, the reproductive system, and other organs and tissues. Flagella are tail-like structures, similar to cilia, that propel sperm cells forward.\n\nIn the respiratory tract, cilia move back and forth in a coordinated way to move mucus towards the throat. This movement of mucus helps to eliminate fluid, bacteria, and particles from the lungs. Most babies with primary ciliary dyskinesia experience breathing problems at birth, which suggests that cilia play an important role in clearing fetal fluid from the lungs. Beginning in early childhood, affected individuals develop frequent respiratory tract infections. Without properly functioning cilia in the airway, bacteria remain in the respiratory tract and cause infection. People with primary ciliary dyskinesia also have year-round nasal congestion and a chronic cough. Chronic respiratory tract infections can result in a condition called bronchiectasis, which damages the passages, called bronchi, leading from the windpipe to the lungs and can cause life-threatening breathing problems.\n\nSome individuals with primary ciliary dyskinesia have abnormally placed organs within their chest and abdomen. These abnormalities arise early in embryonic development when the differences between the left and right sides of the body are established. About 50 percent of people with primary ciliary dyskinesia have a mirror-image reversal of their internal organs (situs inversus totalis). For example, in these individuals the heart is on the right side of the body instead of on the left. Situs inversus totalis does not cause any apparent health problems. When someone with primary ciliary dyskinesia has situs inversus totalis, they are often said to have Kartagener syndrome.\n\nApproximately 12 percent of people with primary ciliary dyskinesia have a condition known as heterotaxy syndrome or situs ambiguus, which is characterized by abnormalities of the heart, liver, intestines, or spleen. These organs may be structurally abnormal or improperly positioned. In addition, affected individuals may lack a spleen (asplenia) or have multiple spleens (polysplenia). Heterotaxy syndrome results from problems establishing the left and right sides of the body during embryonic development. The severity of heterotaxy varies widely among affected individuals.\n\nPrimary ciliary dyskinesia can also lead to infertility. Vigorous movements of the flagella are necessary to propel the sperm cells forward to the female egg cell. Because their sperm do not move properly, males with primary ciliary dyskinesia are usually unable to father children. Infertility occurs in some affected females and is likely due to abnormal cilia in the fallopian tubes.\n\nAnother feature of primary ciliary dyskinesia is recurrent ear infections (otitis media), especially in young children. Otitis media can lead to permanent hearing loss if untreated. The ear infections are likely related to abnormal cilia within the inner ear.\n\nRarely, individuals with primary ciliary dyskinesia have an accumulation of fluid in the brain (hydrocephalus), likely due to abnormal cilia in the brain.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Recurrent bronchitis
MedGen UID:
148159
•Concept ID:
C0741796
•
Disease or Syndrome
An increased susceptibility to bronchitis as manifested by a history of recurrent bronchitis.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Immotile cilia
MedGen UID:
383738
•Concept ID:
C1855672
•
Finding
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Absent outer dynein arms
MedGen UID:
868590
•Concept ID:
C4022989
•
Finding
Absence of the outer dynein arms of respiratory motile cilia, which normally are situated outside of the peripheral microtubules of motile cilia. This feature is usually appreciated by electron microscopy.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Pneumonia
MedGen UID:
10813
•Concept ID:
C0032285
•
Disease or Syndrome
Inflammation of any part of the lung parenchyma.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Chronic sinusitis
MedGen UID:
101751
•Concept ID:
C0149516
•
Disease or Syndrome
A chronic form of sinusitis.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Chronic otitis media
MedGen UID:
75751
•Concept ID:
C0271441
•
Disease or Syndrome
Chronic otitis media refers to fluid, swelling, or infection of the middle ear that does not heal and may cause permanent damage to the ear.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Asplenia
MedGen UID:
1830315
•Concept ID:
C5779621
•
Anatomical Abnormality
Absence (aplasia) of the spleen.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Chronic rhinitis
MedGen UID:
3086
•Concept ID:
C0008711
•
Disease or Syndrome
Chronic inflammation of the nasal mucosa.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Nasal polyposis
MedGen UID:
6524
•Concept ID:
C0027430
•
Anatomical Abnormality
Polypoidal masses arising mainly from the mucous membranes of the nose and paranasal sinuses. They are freely movable and nontender overgrowths of the mucosa that frequently accompany allergic rhinitis.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
Abnormal cornea morphology
MedGen UID:
383737
•Concept ID:
C1855670
•
Finding
Any abnormality of the cornea, which is the transparent tissue at the front of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber.
See: Feature record | Search on this feature
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Term Hierarchy

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Diagnosis of Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia. An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline.
Shapiro AJ, Davis SD, Polineni D, Manion M, Rosenfeld M, Dell SD, Chilvers MA, Ferkol TW, Zariwala MA, Sagel SD, Josephson M, Morgan L, Yilmaz O, Olivier KN, Milla C, Pittman JE, Daniels MLA, Jones MH, Janahi IA, Ware SM, Daniel SJ, Cooper ML, Nogee LM, Anton B, Eastvold T, Ehrne L, Guadagno E, Knowles MR, Leigh MW, Lavergne V; American Thoracic Society Assembly on Pediatrics
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2018 Jun 15;197(12):e24-e39. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201805-0819ST. PMID: 29905515Free PMC Article
Clinical features of childhood primary ciliary dyskinesia by genotype and ultrastructural phenotype.
Davis SD, Ferkol TW, Rosenfeld M, Lee HS, Dell SD, Sagel SD, Milla C, Zariwala MA, Pittman JE, Shapiro AJ, Carson JL, Krischer JP, Hazucha MJ, Cooper ML, Knowles MR, Leigh MW
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015 Feb 1;191(3):316-24. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201409-1672OC. PMID: 25493340Free PMC Article
Diagnosis and management of primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Lucas JS, Burgess A, Mitchison HM, Moya E, Williamson M, Hogg C; National PCD Service, UK
Arch Dis Child 2014 Sep;99(9):850-6. Epub 2014 Apr 25 doi: 10.1136/archdischild-2013-304831. PMID: 24771309Free PMC Article

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Raidt J, Loges NT, Olbrich H, Wallmeier J, Pennekamp P, Omran H
Presse Med 2023 Sep;52(3):104171. Epub 2023 Jul 27 doi: 10.1016/j.lpm.2023.104171. PMID: 37516247
Bronchiectasis in Europe: data on disease characteristics from the European Bronchiectasis registry (EMBARC).
Chalmers JD, Polverino E, Crichton ML, Ringshausen FC, De Soyza A, Vendrell M, Burgel PR, Haworth CS, Loebinger MR, Dimakou K, Murris M, Wilson R, Hill AT, Menendez R, Torres A, Welte T, Blasi F, Altenburg J, Shteinberg M, Boersma W, Elborn JS, Goeminne PC, Aliberti S; EMBARC Registry Investigators
Lancet Respir Med 2023 Jul;11(7):637-649. Epub 2023 Apr 24 doi: 10.1016/S2213-2600(23)00093-0. PMID: 37105206
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia: Longitudinal Study of Lung Disease by Ultrastructure Defect and Genotype.
Davis SD, Rosenfeld M, Lee HS, Ferkol TW, Sagel SD, Dell SD, Milla C, Pittman JE, Shapiro AJ, Sullivan KM, Nykamp KR, Krischer JP, Zariwala MA, Knowles MR, Leigh MW
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2019 Jan 15;199(2):190-198. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201803-0548OC. PMID: 30067075Free PMC Article
Diagnosis of Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia. An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline.
Shapiro AJ, Davis SD, Polineni D, Manion M, Rosenfeld M, Dell SD, Chilvers MA, Ferkol TW, Zariwala MA, Sagel SD, Josephson M, Morgan L, Yilmaz O, Olivier KN, Milla C, Pittman JE, Daniels MLA, Jones MH, Janahi IA, Ware SM, Daniel SJ, Cooper ML, Nogee LM, Anton B, Eastvold T, Ehrne L, Guadagno E, Knowles MR, Leigh MW, Lavergne V; American Thoracic Society Assembly on Pediatrics
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2018 Jun 15;197(12):e24-e39. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201805-0819ST. PMID: 29905515Free PMC Article
Human laterality disorders.
Peeters H, Devriendt K
Eur J Med Genet 2006 Sep-Oct;49(5):349-62. Epub 2006 Jan 3 doi: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2005.12.003. PMID: 16461029

Diagnosis

Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia.
Wee WB, Kinghorn B, Davis SD, Ferkol TW, Shapiro AJ
Pediatrics 2024 Jun 1;153(6) doi: 10.1542/peds.2023-063064. PMID: 38695103Free PMC Article
Primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Raidt J, Loges NT, Olbrich H, Wallmeier J, Pennekamp P, Omran H
Presse Med 2023 Sep;52(3):104171. Epub 2023 Jul 27 doi: 10.1016/j.lpm.2023.104171. PMID: 37516247
Cystic fibrosis and primary ciliary dyskinesia: Similarities and differences.
Pereira R, Barbosa T, Cardoso AL, Sá R, Sousa M
Respir Med 2023 Apr;209:107169. Epub 2023 Feb 22 doi: 10.1016/j.rmed.2023.107169. PMID: 36828173
Diagnosis of Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia. An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline.
Shapiro AJ, Davis SD, Polineni D, Manion M, Rosenfeld M, Dell SD, Chilvers MA, Ferkol TW, Zariwala MA, Sagel SD, Josephson M, Morgan L, Yilmaz O, Olivier KN, Milla C, Pittman JE, Daniels MLA, Jones MH, Janahi IA, Ware SM, Daniel SJ, Cooper ML, Nogee LM, Anton B, Eastvold T, Ehrne L, Guadagno E, Knowles MR, Leigh MW, Lavergne V; American Thoracic Society Assembly on Pediatrics
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2018 Jun 15;197(12):e24-e39. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201805-0819ST. PMID: 29905515Free PMC Article
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia.
Knowles MR, Zariwala M, Leigh M
Clin Chest Med 2016 Sep;37(3):449-61. Epub 2016 Jun 30 doi: 10.1016/j.ccm.2016.04.008. PMID: 27514592Free PMC Article

Therapy

Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia: Longitudinal Study of Lung Disease by Ultrastructure Defect and Genotype.
Davis SD, Rosenfeld M, Lee HS, Ferkol TW, Sagel SD, Dell SD, Milla C, Pittman JE, Shapiro AJ, Sullivan KM, Nykamp KR, Krischer JP, Zariwala MA, Knowles MR, Leigh MW
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2019 Jan 15;199(2):190-198. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201803-0548OC. PMID: 30067075Free PMC Article
European Respiratory Society guidelines for the diagnosis of primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Lucas JS, Barbato A, Collins SA, Goutaki M, Behan L, Caudri D, Dell S, Eber E, Escudier E, Hirst RA, Hogg C, Jorissen M, Latzin P, Legendre M, Leigh MW, Midulla F, Nielsen KG, Omran H, Papon JF, Pohunek P, Redfern B, Rigau D, Rindlisbacher B, Santamaria F, Shoemark A, Snijders D, Tonia T, Titieni A, Walker WT, Werner C, Bush A, Kuehni CE
Eur Respir J 2017 Jan;49(1) Epub 2017 Jan 4 doi: 10.1183/13993003.01090-2016. PMID: 27836958Free PMC Article
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia.
Knowles MR, Zariwala M, Leigh M
Clin Chest Med 2016 Sep;37(3):449-61. Epub 2016 Jun 30 doi: 10.1016/j.ccm.2016.04.008. PMID: 27514592Free PMC Article
Primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Lobo J, Zariwala MA, Noone PG
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2015 Apr;36(2):169-79. Epub 2015 Mar 31 doi: 10.1055/s-0035-1546748. PMID: 25826585Free PMC Article
Primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Lobo LJ, Zariwala MA, Noone PG
QJM 2014 Sep;107(9):691-9. Epub 2014 Mar 19 doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcu063. PMID: 24652656

Prognosis

Airway microbiota correlated with pulmonary exacerbation in primary ciliary dyskinesia patients.
Zhou W, Guo Z, Chen J, Chen Y, He C, Lu A, Qian L
Microbiol Spectr 2023 Dec 12;11(6):e0221323. Epub 2023 Oct 5 doi: 10.1128/spectrum.02213-23. PMID: 37796006Free PMC Article
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia: Longitudinal Study of Lung Disease by Ultrastructure Defect and Genotype.
Davis SD, Rosenfeld M, Lee HS, Ferkol TW, Sagel SD, Dell SD, Milla C, Pittman JE, Shapiro AJ, Sullivan KM, Nykamp KR, Krischer JP, Zariwala MA, Knowles MR, Leigh MW
Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2019 Jan 15;199(2):190-198. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201803-0548OC. PMID: 30067075Free PMC Article
Diagnostic challenges of bronchiectasis.
Suarez-Cuartin G, Chalmers JD, Sibila O
Respir Med 2016 Jul;116:70-7. Epub 2016 May 17 doi: 10.1016/j.rmed.2016.05.014. PMID: 27296824
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia.
Fitzgerald DA, Shapiro AJ
Paediatr Respir Rev 2016 Mar;18:1-2. Epub 2015 Dec 29 doi: 10.1016/j.prrv.2015.11.010. PMID: 26826908
Primary ciliary dyskinesia.
Lobo J, Zariwala MA, Noone PG
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2015 Apr;36(2):169-79. Epub 2015 Mar 31 doi: 10.1055/s-0035-1546748. PMID: 25826585Free PMC Article

Clinical prediction guides

Human Genetics of Defects of Situs.
Perrot A, Rickert-Sperling S
Adv Exp Med Biol 2024;1441:705-717. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-44087-8_42. PMID: 38884744
Bronchiectasis in Europe: data on disease characteristics from the European Bronchiectasis registry (EMBARC).
Chalmers JD, Polverino E, Crichton ML, Ringshausen FC, De Soyza A, Vendrell M, Burgel PR, Haworth CS, Loebinger MR, Dimakou K, Murris M, Wilson R, Hill AT, Menendez R, Torres A, Welte T, Blasi F, Altenburg J, Shteinberg M, Boersma W, Elborn JS, Goeminne PC, Aliberti S; EMBARC Registry Investigators
Lancet Respir Med 2023 Jul;11(7):637-649. Epub 2023 Apr 24 doi: 10.1016/S2213-2600(23)00093-0. PMID: 37105206
Genome sequencing reveals underdiagnosis of primary ciliary dyskinesia in bronchiectasis.
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