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Megalencephaly

MedGen UID:
65141
Concept ID:
C0221355
Congenital Abnormality; Finding
Synonyms: Macroencephaly; Megalencephaly (disease)
SNOMED CT: Skull enlargement (12138000); Large skull (12138000); Large head (12138000)
 
HPO: HP:0001355
Monarch Initiative: MONDO:0016608
Orphanet: ORPHA2477

Definition

Diffuse enlargement of the entire cerebral hemispheres leading to macrocephaly (with or without overlying cortical dysplasia). [from HPO]

Conditions with this feature

Achondroplasia
MedGen UID:
1289
Concept ID:
C0001080
Congenital Abnormality
Achondroplasia is the most common cause of disproportionate short stature. Affected individuals have rhizomelic shortening of the limbs, macrocephaly, and characteristic facial features with frontal bossing and midface retrusion. In infancy, hypotonia is typical, and acquisition of developmental motor milestones is often both aberrant in pattern and delayed. Intelligence and life span are usually near normal, although craniocervical junction compression increases the risk of death in infancy. Additional complications include obstructive sleep apnea, middle ear dysfunction, kyphosis, and spinal stenosis.
Acrocephalosyndactyly type I
MedGen UID:
7858
Concept ID:
C0001193
Congenital Abnormality
Apert syndrome is characterized by the presence of multisuture craniosynostosis, midface retrusion, and syndactyly of the hands with fusion of the second through fourth nails. Almost all affected individuals have coronal craniosynostosis, and a majority also have involvement of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures. The midface in Apert syndrome is underdeveloped as well as retruded; a subset of affected individuals have cleft palate. The hand in Apert syndrome always includes fusion of the middle three digits; the thumb and fifth finger are sometimes also involved. Feeding issues, dental abnormalities, hearing loss, hyperhidrosis, and progressive synostosis of multiple bones (skull, hands, feet, carpus, tarsus, and cervical vertebrae) are also common. Multilevel airway obstruction may be present and can be due to narrowing of the nasal passages, tongue-based airway obstruction, and/or tracheal anomalies. Nonprogressive ventriculomegaly is present in a majority of individuals, with a small subset having true hydrocephalus. Most individuals with Apert syndrome have normal intelligence or mild intellectual disability; moderate-to-severe intellectual disability has been reported in some individuals. A minority of affected individuals have structural cardiac abnormalities, true gastrointestinal malformations, and anomalies of the genitourinary tract.
Curry-Jones syndrome
MedGen UID:
167083
Concept ID:
C0795915
Disease or Syndrome
Curry-Jones syndrome (CRJS) is a multisystem disorder characterized by patchy skin lesions, polysyndactyly, diverse cerebral malformations, unicoronal craniosynostosis, iris colobomas, microphthalmia, and intestinal malrotation with myofibromas or hamartomas (summary by Twigg et al., 2016).
Pseudoaminopterin syndrome
MedGen UID:
163196
Concept ID:
C0795939
Disease or Syndrome
The pseudoaminopterin syndrome (aminopterin syndrome sine aminopterin; ASSA) is a multiple congenital anomaly disorder characterized by ossification defects of the skull, dysmorphic facial features, delayed development, and variable limb defects. The clinical features resemble the embryopathy caused by maternal treatment with the folic acid antagonist aminopterin, which has been recognized since 1952 (Thiersch, 1952) when aminopterin was used as an abortifacient. The characteristic phenotype of the children who survived infancy after having been exposed to aminopterin or its methyl derivative, methotrexate, in early pregnancy included a very unusual facies, skull anomalies, and skeletal defects (summary by Fraser et al., 1987).
Early-onset parkinsonism-intellectual disability syndrome
MedGen UID:
208674
Concept ID:
C0796195
Disease or Syndrome
Waisman syndrome (WSMN) is an X-linked neurologic disorder characterized by delayed psychomotor development, impaired intellectual development, and early-onset Parkinson disease (summary by Wilson et al., 2014).
Megalencephaly with dysmyelination
MedGen UID:
344470
Concept ID:
C1855309
Disease or Syndrome
Megalencephaly-capillary malformation-polymicrogyria syndrome
MedGen UID:
355421
Concept ID:
C1865285
Disease or Syndrome
PIK3CA-related overgrowth spectrum (PROS) encompasses a range of clinical findings in which the core features are congenital or early-childhood onset of segmental/focal overgrowth with or without cellular dysplasia. Prior to the identification of PIK3CA as the causative gene, PROS was separated into distinct clinical syndromes based on the tissues and/or organs involved (e.g., MCAP [megalencephaly-capillary malformation] syndrome and CLOVES [congenital lipomatous asymmetric overgrowth of the trunk, lymphatic, capillary, venous, and combined-type vascular malformations, epidermal nevi, skeletal and spinal anomalies] syndrome). The predominant areas of overgrowth include the brain, limbs (including fingers and toes), trunk (including abdomen and chest), and face, all usually in an asymmetric distribution. Generalized brain overgrowth may be accompanied by secondary overgrowth of specific brain structures resulting in ventriculomegaly, a markedly thick corpus callosum, and cerebellar tonsillar ectopia with crowding of the posterior fossa. Vascular malformations may include capillary, venous, and less frequently, arterial or mixed (capillary-lymphatic-venous or arteriovenous) malformations. Lymphatic malformations may be in various locations (internal and/or external) and can cause various clinical issues, including swelling, pain, and occasionally localized bleeding secondary to trauma. Lipomatous overgrowth may occur ipsilateral or contralateral to a vascular malformation, if present. The degree of intellectual disability appears to be mostly related to the presence and severity of seizures, cortical dysplasia (e.g., polymicrogyria), and hydrocephalus. Many children have feeding difficulties that are often multifactorial in nature. Endocrine issues affect a small number of individuals and most commonly include hypoglycemia (largely hypoinsulinemic hypoketotic hypoglycemia), hypothyroidism, and growth hormone deficiency.
Polyhydramnios, megalencephaly, and symptomatic epilepsy
MedGen UID:
370203
Concept ID:
C1970203
Disease or Syndrome
A rare genetic neurological disorder with characteristics of pregnancy complicated by polyhydramnios, severe intractable epilepsy presenting in infancy, severe hypotonia, decreased muscle mass, global developmental delay, craniofacial dysmorphism (long face, large forehead, peaked eyebrows, broad nasal bridge, hypertelorism, large mouth with thick lips), and macrocephaly due to megalencephaly and hydrocephalus in most patients. Additional features that have been reported include cardiac anomalies like atrial septal defects, diabetes insipidus and nephrocalcinosis among others.
Severe achondroplasia-developmental delay-acanthosis nigricans syndrome
MedGen UID:
393098
Concept ID:
C2674173
Congenital Abnormality
SADDAN dysplasia (severe achondroplasia with developmental delay and acanthosis nigricans) is a very rare skeletal dysplasia characterized by the constellation of these features. Radiology reveals 'ram's horn' shaped clavicles and reverse bowing of lower limbs. Approximately half of patients die before the fourth week of life secondary to respiratory failure (summary by Zankl et al., 2008).
Chromosome 4Q32.1-q32.2 triplication syndrome
MedGen UID:
462207
Concept ID:
C3150857
Disease or Syndrome
Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 2A
MedGen UID:
462705
Concept ID:
C3151355
Disease or Syndrome
The classic phenotype of megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is characterized by early-onset macrocephaly, often in combination with mild gross motor developmental delay and seizures; gradual onset of ataxia, spasticity, and sometimes extrapyramidal findings; and usually late onset of mild mental deterioration. Macrocephaly, observed in virtually all individuals, may be present at birth but more frequently develops during the first year of life. The degree of macrocephaly is variable and can be as great as 4 to 6 SD above the mean in some individuals. After the first year of life, head growth rate normalizes and growth follows a line parallel to and usually several centimeters above the 98th centile. Initial mental and motor development is normal in most individuals. Walking is often unstable, followed by ataxia of the trunk and extremities, then minor signs of pyramidal dysfunction and brisk deep-tendon stretch reflexes. Almost all individuals have epilepsy from an early age. The epilepsy is typically well controlled with anti-seizure medication, but status epilepticus occurs relatively frequently. Mental deterioration is late and mild. Disease severity ranges from independent walking for a few years only to independent walking in the fifth decade. Some individuals have died in their teens or twenties; others are alive in their fifties. An improving phenotype has a similar initial presentation with delayed mental or motor development, followed by an improving clinical course: macrocephaly usually persists, but some children become normocephalic; motor function improves or normalizes; hypotonia and clumsiness may persist in some or neurologic examination may become normal. Some have intellectual disability that is stable, with or without autism. Epilepsy and status epilepticus may occur.
Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 2B, remitting, with or without intellectual disability
MedGen UID:
462706
Concept ID:
C3151356
Disease or Syndrome
The classic phenotype of megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is characterized by early-onset macrocephaly, often in combination with mild gross motor developmental delay and seizures; gradual onset of ataxia, spasticity, and sometimes extrapyramidal findings; and usually late onset of mild mental deterioration. Macrocephaly, observed in virtually all individuals, may be present at birth but more frequently develops during the first year of life. The degree of macrocephaly is variable and can be as great as 4 to 6 SD above the mean in some individuals. After the first year of life, head growth rate normalizes and growth follows a line parallel to and usually several centimeters above the 98th centile. Initial mental and motor development is normal in most individuals. Walking is often unstable, followed by ataxia of the trunk and extremities, then minor signs of pyramidal dysfunction and brisk deep-tendon stretch reflexes. Almost all individuals have epilepsy from an early age. The epilepsy is typically well controlled with anti-seizure medication, but status epilepticus occurs relatively frequently. Mental deterioration is late and mild. Disease severity ranges from independent walking for a few years only to independent walking in the fifth decade. Some individuals have died in their teens or twenties; others are alive in their fifties. An improving phenotype has a similar initial presentation with delayed mental or motor development, followed by an improving clinical course: macrocephaly usually persists, but some children become normocephalic; motor function improves or normalizes; hypotonia and clumsiness may persist in some or neurologic examination may become normal. Some have intellectual disability that is stable, with or without autism. Epilepsy and status epilepticus may occur.
Intellectual disability, autosomal recessive 34
MedGen UID:
482674
Concept ID:
C3281044
Disease or Syndrome
MRT34 is an autosomal recessive neurologic disorder characterized by mildly to moderately impaired intellectual development and megalencephaly or enlarged head circumference. Brain imaging shows a mild variant of lissencephaly with anterior-predominant pachygyria with shallow and unusually wide sulci and mildly thickened cortex. Some patients may have seizures (summary by Di Donato et al., 2016).
Megalencephaly, autosomal dominant
MedGen UID:
812057
Concept ID:
C3805727
Disease or Syndrome
Primary megalencephaly is defined as a head circumference about the 98th percentile that most likely is due to brain enlargement and is not secondary to disease (review by Petersson et al., 1999).
Macrocephaly/megalencephaly syndrome, autosomal recessive
MedGen UID:
812742
Concept ID:
C3806412
Disease or Syndrome
Macrocephaly refers to an abnormally enlarged head inclusive of the scalp, cranial bones, and intracranial contents. Macrocephaly may be due to megalencephaly (true enlargement of the brain parenchyma), and the 2 terms are often used interchangeably in the genetic literature (reviews by Olney, 2007 and Williams et al., 2008). Autosomal recessive macrocephaly/megalencephaly syndrome is characterized by an enlarged cranium apparent at birth or in early childhood. Affected individuals have intellectual disability and may have dysmorphic facial features resulting from the macrocephaly (summary by Alfaiz et al., 2014).
Megalencephaly-polymicrogyria-polydactyly-hydrocephalus syndrome 1
MedGen UID:
861164
Concept ID:
C4012727
Disease or Syndrome
MPPH (megalencephaly-postaxial polydactyly-polymicrogyria-hydrocephalus) syndrome is a developmental brain disorder characterized by megalencephaly (brain overgrowth) with the cortical malformation bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria (BPP). At birth the occipital frontal circumference (OFC) ranges from normal to 6 standard deviations (SD) above the mean for age, sex, and gestational age; in older individuals the range is from 3 to 10 SD above the mean. A variable degree of ventriculomegaly is seen in almost all children with MPPH syndrome; nearly 50% of individuals have frank hydrocephalus. Neurologic problems associated with BPP include oromotor dysfunction (100%), epilepsy (50%), and mild-to-severe intellectual disability (100%). Postaxial hexadactyly occurs in 50% of individuals with MPPH syndrome.
Megalencephaly-polymicrogyria-polydactyly-hydrocephalus syndrome 3
MedGen UID:
863179
Concept ID:
C4014742
Disease or Syndrome
MPPH (megalencephaly-postaxial polydactyly-polymicrogyria-hydrocephalus) syndrome is a developmental brain disorder characterized by megalencephaly (brain overgrowth) with the cortical malformation bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria (BPP). At birth the occipital frontal circumference (OFC) ranges from normal to 6 standard deviations (SD) above the mean for age, sex, and gestational age; in older individuals the range is from 3 to 10 SD above the mean. A variable degree of ventriculomegaly is seen in almost all children with MPPH syndrome; nearly 50% of individuals have frank hydrocephalus. Neurologic problems associated with BPP include oromotor dysfunction (100%), epilepsy (50%), and mild-to-severe intellectual disability (100%). Postaxial hexadactyly occurs in 50% of individuals with MPPH syndrome.
Macrocephaly-intellectual disability-neurodevelopmental disorder-small thorax syndrome
MedGen UID:
899689
Concept ID:
C4225259
Disease or Syndrome
Smith-Kingsmore syndrome (SKS) is a rare autosomal dominant syndromic intellectual disability syndrome characterized by macrocephaly, seizures, umbilical hernia, and facial dysmorphic features including frontal bossing, midface hypoplasia, small chin, hypertelorism with downslanting palpebral fissures, depressed nasal bridge, smooth philtrum, and thin upper lip (Smith et al., 2013; Baynam et al., 2015).
Macrocephaly, dysmorphic facies, and psychomotor retardation
MedGen UID:
934733
Concept ID:
C4310766
Disease or Syndrome
Macrocephaly, dysmorphic facies, and psychomotor retardation (MDFPMR) is an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by large head and somatic overgrowth apparent at birth followed by global developmental delay. Affected individuals have characteristic dysmorphic facial features and persistently large head, but increased birth weight normalizes with age. Additional neurologic features, including seizures, hypotonia, and gait ataxia, may also occur. Patients show severe intellectual impairment (summary by Ortega-Recalde et al., 2015).
Craniometadiaphyseal dysplasia wormian bone type
MedGen UID:
1382152
Concept ID:
C4510809
Disease or Syndrome
Craniometadiaphyseal dysplasia (CRMDD) is characterized clinically by macrocephaly with frontal prominence, dental hypoplasia, and increased bone fragility. Diagnostic radiologic features include thin bones in the superior part of calvaria with prominent wormian bones, diaphyseal widening of the long tubular bones in early childhood with wide undermineralized metaphyses in older individuals, widened ribs and clavicles, and broadening of short tubular bones with increased transparency and thin cortices (summary by Dhar et al., 2010).
Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts 1
MedGen UID:
1826136
Concept ID:
C5779875
Disease or Syndrome
The classic phenotype of megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC) is characterized by early-onset macrocephaly, often in combination with mild gross motor developmental delay and seizures; gradual onset of ataxia, spasticity, and sometimes extrapyramidal findings; and usually late onset of mild mental deterioration. Macrocephaly, observed in virtually all individuals, may be present at birth but more frequently develops during the first year of life. The degree of macrocephaly is variable and can be as great as 4 to 6 SD above the mean in some individuals. After the first year of life, head growth rate normalizes and growth follows a line parallel to and usually several centimeters above the 98th centile. Initial mental and motor development is normal in most individuals. Walking is often unstable, followed by ataxia of the trunk and extremities, then minor signs of pyramidal dysfunction and brisk deep-tendon stretch reflexes. Almost all individuals have epilepsy from an early age. The epilepsy is typically well controlled with anti-seizure medication, but status epilepticus occurs relatively frequently. Mental deterioration is late and mild. Disease severity ranges from independent walking for a few years only to independent walking in the fifth decade. Some individuals have died in their teens or twenties; others are alive in their fifties. An improving phenotype has a similar initial presentation with delayed mental or motor development, followed by an improving clinical course: macrocephaly usually persists, but some children become normocephalic; motor function improves or normalizes; hypotonia and clumsiness may persist in some or neurologic examination may become normal. Some have intellectual disability that is stable, with or without autism. Epilepsy and status epilepticus may occur.
Leukoencephalopathy with vanishing white matter 5
MedGen UID:
1830483
Concept ID:
C5779973
Disease or Syndrome
Leukoencephalopathy with vanishing white matter-5 (VWM5) is a chronic and progressive autosomal recessive leukoencephalopathy characterized by neurologic deterioration usually beginning in late infancy or early childhood; however, juvenile- and adult-onset cases have been reported. Neurologic signs include cerebellar ataxia, spasticity, and relatively preserved mental abilities. The disease is chronic and progressive with, in most individuals, additional episodes of rapid deterioration following febrile infections or minor head trauma. Death occurs after a variable period of a few years to a few decades, usually following an episode of fever and coma. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy are diagnostic and show a diffuse abnormality of the cerebral white matter beginning in the presymptomatic stage, with increasing amounts of the abnormal white matter vanishing and being replaced by cerebrospinal fluid; autopsy confirms these findings (summary by Leegwater et al., 2001). Ovarian dysgenesis may be present in affected females (Fogli et al., 2003). For a discussion of genetic heterogeneity of VWM, see 603896. Cree Leukoencephalopathy An infantile leukoencephalopathy among the native Cree and Chippewayan indigenous population in Northern Quebec and Manitoba results from homozygosity for an arg195-to-his (R195H; 603945.0005) mutation in the EIF2B5 gene. These patients have disease onset between 3 and 9 months of age, with death in 100% by 21 months of age.
Megalencephaly-polydactyly syndrome
MedGen UID:
1855924
Concept ID:
C5935591
Disease or Syndrome
Megalencephaly-polydactyly syndrome (MPAPA) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by megalencephaly, ventriculomegaly, postaxial polydactyly, and, notably, neuroblastoma during infancy (summary by Nishio et al., 2023).

Professional guidelines

PubMed

Bryant JP, Hernandez NE, Niazi TN
Pediatr Clin North Am 2021 Aug;68(4):759-773. doi: 10.1016/j.pcl.2021.04.004. PMID: 34247707
Keppler-Noreuil KM, Rios JJ, Parker VE, Semple RK, Lindhurst MJ, Sapp JC, Alomari A, Ezaki M, Dobyns W, Biesecker LG
Am J Med Genet A 2015 Feb;167A(2):287-95. Epub 2014 Dec 31 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36836. PMID: 25557259Free PMC Article
DeMyer W
Pediatr Neurol 1986 Nov-Dec;2(6):321-8. doi: 10.1016/0887-8994(86)90072-x. PMID: 3334205

Recent clinical studies

Etiology

Pascual P, Tenorio-Castano J, Mignot C, Afenjar A, Arias P, Gallego-Zazo N, Parra A, Miranda L, Cazalla M, Silván C, Heron D, Keren B, Popa I, Palomares M, Rikeros E, Ramos FJ, Almoguera B, Ayuso C, Swafiri ST, Barbero AIS, Srinivasan VM, Gowda VK, Morleo M, Nigro V, D'Arrigo S, Ciaccio C, Martin Mesa C, Paumard B, Guillen G, Anton ATS, Jimenez MD, Seidel V, Suárez J, Cormier-Daire V, Consortium TS, Nevado J, Lapunzina P
Genes (Basel) 2023 Aug 23;14(9) doi: 10.3390/genes14091664. PMID: 37761804Free PMC Article
Priolo M, Schanze D, Tatton-Brown K, Mulder PA, Tenorio J, Kooblall K, Acero IH, Alkuraya FS, Arias P, Bernardini L, Bijlsma EK, Cole T, Coubes C, Dapia I, Davies S, Di Donato N, Elcioglu NH, Fahrner JA, Foster A, González NG, Huber I, Iascone M, Kaiser AS, Kamath A, Liebelt J, Lynch SA, Maas SM, Mammì C, Mathijssen IB, McKee S, Menke LA, Mirzaa GM, Montgomery T, Neubauer D, Neumann TE, Pintomalli L, Pisanti MA, Plomp AS, Price S, Salter C, Santos-Simarro F, Sarda P, Segovia M, Shaw-Smith C, Smithson S, Suri M, Valdez RM, Van Haeringen A, Van Hagen JM, Zollino M, Lapunzina P, Thakker RV, Zenker M, Hennekam RC
Hum Mutat 2018 Sep;39(9):1226-1237. Epub 2018 Jun 25 doi: 10.1002/humu.23563. PMID: 29897170Free PMC Article
Keppler-Noreuil KM, Rios JJ, Parker VE, Semple RK, Lindhurst MJ, Sapp JC, Alomari A, Ezaki M, Dobyns W, Biesecker LG
Am J Med Genet A 2015 Feb;167A(2):287-95. Epub 2014 Dec 31 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36836. PMID: 25557259Free PMC Article
Bardsley MZ, Kowal K, Levy C, Gosek A, Ayari N, Tartaglia N, Lahlou N, Winder B, Grimes S, Ross JL
J Pediatr 2013 Oct;163(4):1085-94. Epub 2013 Jun 27 doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.05.037. PMID: 23810129Free PMC Article
O'Roak BJ, Vives L, Fu W, Egertson JD, Stanaway IB, Phelps IG, Carvill G, Kumar A, Lee C, Ankenman K, Munson J, Hiatt JB, Turner EH, Levy R, O'Day DR, Krumm N, Coe BP, Martin BK, Borenstein E, Nickerson DA, Mefford HC, Doherty D, Akey JM, Bernier R, Eichler EE, Shendure J
Science 2012 Dec 21;338(6114):1619-22. Epub 2012 Nov 15 doi: 10.1126/science.1227764. PMID: 23160955Free PMC Article

Diagnosis

Pascual P, Tenorio-Castano J, Mignot C, Afenjar A, Arias P, Gallego-Zazo N, Parra A, Miranda L, Cazalla M, Silván C, Heron D, Keren B, Popa I, Palomares M, Rikeros E, Ramos FJ, Almoguera B, Ayuso C, Swafiri ST, Barbero AIS, Srinivasan VM, Gowda VK, Morleo M, Nigro V, D'Arrigo S, Ciaccio C, Martin Mesa C, Paumard B, Guillen G, Anton ATS, Jimenez MD, Seidel V, Suárez J, Cormier-Daire V, Consortium TS, Nevado J, Lapunzina P
Genes (Basel) 2023 Aug 23;14(9) doi: 10.3390/genes14091664. PMID: 37761804Free PMC Article
Neuberger I, Stence NV, Maloney JA, White CJ, Mirsky DM
Clin Perinatol 2022 Sep;49(3):715-734. doi: 10.1016/j.clp.2022.05.006. PMID: 36113931
Priolo M, Schanze D, Tatton-Brown K, Mulder PA, Tenorio J, Kooblall K, Acero IH, Alkuraya FS, Arias P, Bernardini L, Bijlsma EK, Cole T, Coubes C, Dapia I, Davies S, Di Donato N, Elcioglu NH, Fahrner JA, Foster A, González NG, Huber I, Iascone M, Kaiser AS, Kamath A, Liebelt J, Lynch SA, Maas SM, Mammì C, Mathijssen IB, McKee S, Menke LA, Mirzaa GM, Montgomery T, Neubauer D, Neumann TE, Pintomalli L, Pisanti MA, Plomp AS, Price S, Salter C, Santos-Simarro F, Sarda P, Segovia M, Shaw-Smith C, Smithson S, Suri M, Valdez RM, Van Haeringen A, Van Hagen JM, Zollino M, Lapunzina P, Thakker RV, Zenker M, Hennekam RC
Hum Mutat 2018 Sep;39(9):1226-1237. Epub 2018 Jun 25 doi: 10.1002/humu.23563. PMID: 29897170Free PMC Article
Keppler-Noreuil KM, Rios JJ, Parker VE, Semple RK, Lindhurst MJ, Sapp JC, Alomari A, Ezaki M, Dobyns W, Biesecker LG
Am J Med Genet A 2015 Feb;167A(2):287-95. Epub 2014 Dec 31 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36836. PMID: 25557259Free PMC Article
Bardsley MZ, Kowal K, Levy C, Gosek A, Ayari N, Tartaglia N, Lahlou N, Winder B, Grimes S, Ross JL
J Pediatr 2013 Oct;163(4):1085-94. Epub 2013 Jun 27 doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.05.037. PMID: 23810129Free PMC Article

Therapy

VanSickle EA, Michael J, Bachmann AS, Rajasekaran S, Prokop JW, Kuzniecky R, Hofstede FC, Steindl K, Rauch A, Lipson MH, Bupp CP
Am J Med Genet A 2021 Nov;185(11):3485-3493. Epub 2021 Sep 3 doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.62473. PMID: 34477286Free PMC Article
Ostendorf AP, Wong M
CNS Drugs 2015 Feb;29(2):91-9. doi: 10.1007/s40263-014-0223-x. PMID: 25633849Free PMC Article
Madsen PJ, Lang SS, Pisapia JM, Storm PB, Hurst RW, Heuer GG
J Neurosurg Pediatr 2013 Oct;12(4):344-50. Epub 2013 Aug 2 doi: 10.3171/2013.6.PEDS13110. PMID: 23909618
Galanopoulou AS, Gorter JA, Cepeda C
Epilepsia 2012 Jul;53(7):1119-30. Epub 2012 May 11 doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03506.x. PMID: 22578218Free PMC Article
Almgren M, Schalling M, Lavebratt C
Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2008 Nov;12(6):438-45. Epub 2008 Jan 31 doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2007.11.008. PMID: 18242108

Prognosis

Shinar S, Chitayat D, Shannon P, Blaser S
Prenat Diagn 2023 Dec;43(13):1650-1661. Epub 2023 Nov 27 doi: 10.1002/pd.6473. PMID: 38009873
Pascual P, Tenorio-Castano J, Mignot C, Afenjar A, Arias P, Gallego-Zazo N, Parra A, Miranda L, Cazalla M, Silván C, Heron D, Keren B, Popa I, Palomares M, Rikeros E, Ramos FJ, Almoguera B, Ayuso C, Swafiri ST, Barbero AIS, Srinivasan VM, Gowda VK, Morleo M, Nigro V, D'Arrigo S, Ciaccio C, Martin Mesa C, Paumard B, Guillen G, Anton ATS, Jimenez MD, Seidel V, Suárez J, Cormier-Daire V, Consortium TS, Nevado J, Lapunzina P
Genes (Basel) 2023 Aug 23;14(9) doi: 10.3390/genes14091664. PMID: 37761804Free PMC Article
Pavone P, Praticò AD, Rizzo R, Corsello G, Ruggieri M, Parano E, Falsaperla R
Medicine (Baltimore) 2017 Jun;96(26):e6814. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000006814. PMID: 28658095Free PMC Article
Rodriguez D
Handb Clin Neurol 2013;113:1619-28. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-59565-2.00030-7. PMID: 23622383
O'Roak BJ, Vives L, Fu W, Egertson JD, Stanaway IB, Phelps IG, Carvill G, Kumar A, Lee C, Ankenman K, Munson J, Hiatt JB, Turner EH, Levy R, O'Day DR, Krumm N, Coe BP, Martin BK, Borenstein E, Nickerson DA, Mefford HC, Doherty D, Akey JM, Bernier R, Eichler EE, Shendure J
Science 2012 Dec 21;338(6114):1619-22. Epub 2012 Nov 15 doi: 10.1126/science.1227764. PMID: 23160955Free PMC Article

Clinical prediction guides

Pascual P, Tenorio-Castano J, Mignot C, Afenjar A, Arias P, Gallego-Zazo N, Parra A, Miranda L, Cazalla M, Silván C, Heron D, Keren B, Popa I, Palomares M, Rikeros E, Ramos FJ, Almoguera B, Ayuso C, Swafiri ST, Barbero AIS, Srinivasan VM, Gowda VK, Morleo M, Nigro V, D'Arrigo S, Ciaccio C, Martin Mesa C, Paumard B, Guillen G, Anton ATS, Jimenez MD, Seidel V, Suárez J, Cormier-Daire V, Consortium TS, Nevado J, Lapunzina P
Genes (Basel) 2023 Aug 23;14(9) doi: 10.3390/genes14091664. PMID: 37761804Free PMC Article
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